Steinberg, E. E., Keiflin, R., Boivin, J. R., Witten, I. B., Deisseroth, K., & Janak, P. H. (2013). A causal link between prediction errors, dopamine neurons and learning. Nature Neuroscience, 16(7), 966–973. doi:10.1038/nn.3413. Nicola SM, Yun IA, Wakabayashi KT, Fields HL (2004) Firing of nucleus accumbens neurons during the consummatory phase of a discriminative stimulus task depends on previous reward predictive cues. J Neurophysiol 91:1866–1882. 10.1152/jn.00658.2003 All training and experiments took place in standard operant chambers measuring approximately 30 × 25 cm (Med Associates; St. Albans, VT, USA) housed inside sound-attenuating cabinets equipped with ventilating fans. The chambers were illuminated with two 28 V white house lights and, at all times during the experiment, white noise (≈65 dB) was played from a dedicated speaker, masking outside noise. Another speaker was used for playing auditory cues during the task. One wall of the chamber contained a reward receptacle flanked by two retractable levers; only one lever was used for each rat, counterbalanced across subjects. Blue cue lights were located above each lever. The behavioral task was controlled by MED-PC software (Med Associates) and behavioral events (lever deflections and receptacle entries/exits) were collected at a resolution of 1 ms. Training Learning to recognize the body language of liking, and to distinguish it from wanting, has welfare implications when using food-reward training. Wanting may motivate behavior, but it doesn’t follow that the experience is pleasurable.

For any upgrade in plan level, your credit card that you provided will automatically be charged the prorated amount for the remainder of your billing cycle. For a plan downgrade, the new rate will automatically be applied to your next billing cycle. Flagel SB, Robinson TE (2017) Neurobiological basis of individual variation in stimulus-reward learning. Curr Opin Behav Sci 13:178–185 Flagel SB, Clark JJ, Robinson TE, Mayo L, Czuj A, Willuhn I, Akers CA, Clinton SM, Phillips PE, Akil H (2011) A selective role for dopamine in stimulus-reward learning. Nature 469:53–57. 10.1038/nature09588

Chapter 7: Relevance of Sign-Tracking to Co-Occurring Psychiatric Disorders

Yager LM, Robinson TE (2010) Cue-induced reinstatement of food seeking in rats that differ in their propensity to attribute incentive salience to food cues. Behav Brain Res 214:30–34. 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.04.021

Following magazine training, subjects completed seven consecutive daily acquisition sessions on the PCA task. Neuronal recording took place on all 7 d. The PCA task consisted of 25 trials separated by an intertrial interval selected from a truncated exponential distribution averaging 60 s. Each trial was initiated by the presentation of the cue: lever extension accompanied by a brief auditory stimulus (1 s, 500-Hz intermittent tone) and flashing of the corresponding cue light (5 Hz). After 8 s, the lever retracted, the cue light extinguished, and the reward was delivered into the magazine. No action was required for reward to be delivered. Everitt, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2016). Drug addiction: Updating actions to habits to compulsions ten years on. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 23–50. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-122414–033457. Morein-Zamir S, Shahper S, Fineberg NA, Eisele V, Eagle DM, Urcelay G, Robbins TW (2018) Free operant observing in humans: a translational approach to compulsive certainty seeking. Q J Exp Psychol 71:2052–2069

Morrison SE, Nicola SM (2014) Neurons in the nucleus accumbens promote selection bias for nearer objects. J Neurosci 34:14147–14162. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2197-14.2014

Parkinson JA, Olmstead MC, Burns LH, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (1999) Dissociation in effects of lesions of the nucleus accumbens core and shell on appetitive pavlovian approach behavior and the potentiation of conditioned reinforcement and locomotor activity by D-amphetamine. J Neurosci 19:2401–2411. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.19-06-02401.1999 [ PMC free article] [ PubMed] [ CrossRef] [ Google Scholar] Huys QJ, Tobler PN, Hasler G, Flagel SB (2014) The role of learning-related dopamine signals in addiction vulnerability. Prog Brain Res 211:31–77. 10.1016/B978-0-444-63425-2.00003-9 Robinson, M.J.F., Anselme, P., Suchomel, K., and Berridge, K.C. (2015) Amphetamine-induced sensitization and reward uncertainty similarly enhance incentive salience for conditioned cues. Behavioral Neuroscience 129(4), 502-511 Kulka, R. A., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Hough, R. L., Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C. R.. . . . Grady, D. A. (1990). Trauma and the Vietnam War generation: Report of findings from the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study. New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel. Paolone, G., Angelakos, C. C., Meyer, P. J., Robinson, T. E., & Sarter, M. (2013). Cholinergic control over attention in rats prone to attribute incentive salience to reward cues. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(19), 8321–8335. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0709–13.2013.Content that impersonates any person or entity or otherwise misrepresents your affiliation with a person or entity; Despite the use of chronic electrodes, the authors do not make use of waveform similarity analyses to provide evidence that they are holding the same sets of neurons across days. The addition of such analyses would greatly strengthen the manuscript and allow for stronger claims about the development of task-relevant responses in the nucleus accumbens core. For other destinations, once your item has left the UK, Royal Mail hands it over to the relevant country's postal authority. Flagel SB, Robinson TE, Clark JJ, Clinton SM, Watson SJ, Seeman P, Phillips PEM, Akil H (2010) An animal model of genetic vulnerability to behavioral disinhibition and responsiveness to reward-related cues: implications for addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 35:388–400

Flagel SB, Akil H, Robinson TE (2009) Individual differences in the attribution of incentive salience to reward-related cues: implications for addiction. Neuropharmacology 56(Suppl 1):139–148 Myin-Germeys, I., Delespaul, P. A., & deVries, M. W. (2000). Schizophrenia patients are more emotionally active than is assumed based on their behavior. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26(4), 847–854. Frank, G. K., Shott, M. E., Riederer, J., & Pryor, T. L. (2016). Altered structural and effective connectivity in anorexia and bulimia nervosa in circuits that regulate energy and reward homeostasis. Translational Psychiatry, 6(11), e932. doi:10.1038/tp.2016.199. Peterson GB (1975) Response selection properties of food and brain-stimulation reinforcers in rats. Physiol Behav 14:681–688Peristimulus time histograms (PSTHs) for individual neurons were calculated in 10-ms bins and are shown smoothed with a 5-bin moving average. Population PSTHs were also calculated in 10-ms bins and normalized relative to a 1-s pre-cue baseline before averaging across neurons. The average activity was smoothed for display using a 5-bin moving average.