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Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London, England, UK: Helm Publishing. p.361. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
Penguin swimming under water, Galapagos". Youtube.com. April 14, 2008. Archived from the original on June 8, 2014 . Retrieved September 8, 2013. Several authors have suggested that penguins are a good example of Bergmann's Rule [66] [67] where larger-bodied populations live at higher latitudes than smaller-bodied populations. There is some disagreement about this and several other authors have noted that there are fossil penguin species that contradict this hypothesis and that ocean currents and upwellings are likely to have had a greater effect on species diversity than latitude alone. [68] [69] Penguins and humans The cook on the Endurance preparing an emperor penguin for consumption. An Adélie penguin encountering a human during the Antarctic summer
The majority of living penguin species have declining populations. According to the IUCN Red List, their conservation statuses range from Least Concern through to Endangered. A 2014 analysis of whole genomes of 48 representative bird species has concluded that penguins are the sister group of Procellariiformes, [44] from which they diverged about 60 million years ago (95% CI, 56.8-62.7). [45] Although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin actually live so far south. Several species live in the temperate zone; [63] [ failed verification] one, the Galápagos penguin, lives as far north as the Galápagos Islands, but this is only made possible by the cold, rich waters of the Antarctic Humboldt Current that flows around these islands. [64] Also, though the climate of the Arctic and Antarctic regions is similar, there are no penguins found in the Arctic. [65] Gálapagos Penguins Near Isabela Island Cole, T.L.; Ksepka, D.T.; Mitchell, K.J.; Tennyson, A.J.; Thomas, D.B.; Pan, H.; Zhang, G.; Rawlence, N.J.; Wood, J.R.; Bover, P.; Bouzat, J.L. (2019). "Mitogenomes uncover extinct penguin taxa and reveal island formation as a key driver of speciation". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 36 (4): 784–797. doi: 10.1093/molbev/msz017. PMID 30722030. Tui De Roy; Mark Jones; Julie Cornthwaite (2013). Penguins:The Ultimate Guide. Princeton University Press. p.151.
Pan, Hailin; Cole, Theresa L.; Bi, Xupeng; Fang, Miaoquan; Zhou, Chengran; Yang, Zhengtao; Ksepka, Daniel T.; Hart, Tom; Bouzat, Juan L.; Argilla, Lisa S.; Bertelsen, Mads F. (September 1, 2019). "High-coverage genomes to elucidate the evolution of penguins". GigaScience. 8 (9). doi: 10.1093/gigascience/giz117. PMC 6904868. PMID 31531675. I know this is really disappointing news. Penguins are simply so adorable that it’s hard to believe you’re not supposed to hug them. World's biggest king penguin colony shrinks 90 percent". World's biggest king penguin colony shrinks 90 percent (in Turkish). Archived from the original on August 1, 2018 . Retrieved August 1, 2018. Meiri, S; Dayan, T. (2003). "On the validity of Bergmann's rule" (PDF). Journal of Biogeography. 30 (#3): 331–351. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2699.2003.00837.x. S2CID 11954818. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 24, 2015 . Retrieved November 13, 2014. Ed Young (October 20, 2015). "Busting Myths About Penguin Feathers". National Geographic. Archived from the original on October 7, 2018 . Retrieved October 7, 2018.The truth about Happy Feet's home". 3 News NZ. August 8, 2011. Archived from the original on December 10, 2013 . Retrieved November 21, 2012. Some wild species of penguins, such as the Tawaki, live in isolation, so if you suddenly show up out of nowhere and approach them, they will feel uncomfortable with your presence. It’s only normal for an animal to react defensively when there’s a potential threat in its environment. a b Gaskell, Jeremy (2000). Who Killed the Great Auk?. Oxford University Press (USA). p.152. ISBN 0-19-856478-3. Archived from the original on October 18, 2021 . Retrieved November 18, 2020.
Grabski, Valerie (2009). "Little Penguin – Penguin Project". Penguin Sentinels/University of Washington. Archived from the original on December 16, 2011 . Retrieved September 24, 2022. Penguin – Definition". Merriam-Webster. August 31, 2012. Archived from the original on October 29, 2013 . Retrieved September 8, 2013.
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Traditionally, most extinct species of penguins, giant or small, had been placed in the paraphyletic subfamily called Palaeeudyptinae. More recently, with new taxa being discovered and placed in the phylogeny if possible, it is becoming accepted that there were at least two major extinct lineages. One or two closely related ones occurred in Patagonia, and at least one other—which is or includes the paleeudyptines as recognized today – occurred on most Antarctic and Subantarctic coasts.
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